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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH
APRIL 2014 | VOLUME 4, ISSUE 2 | ISSN 2230-9136 (PRINT) 2321-7170 (ONLINE)
An Analysis of the Thematic Structures in
Persian and English Expository and Narrative
Texts
Hashem Maleki
Lecturer at Payam Noor University of Chenaran, Iran.
ABSTRACT
Systemic Functional Grammar, originally proposed by Halliday, has been used in many
disciplines, such as Applied Linguistics, Sociolinguistics, Composition and Rhetoric. This
theory of language description has yielded fruitful results and has been the basis of studies in
interdisciplinary studies like (Critical) Discourse Analysis and Translation Studies, to name
some. This theory is the basis of the present study, to find the ways in which the Theme and
Rheme patterns may differ (if at all) in two genres of composition, Expository and Narrative
texts in English and Persian. The thematic structure of different text genres vary systematically,
since each genre calls for different ways to represent ideas. To put this into perspective, sample
texts from the two genres written originally in English and Persian are selected, analyzed, and
the similarities and/ or differences will be accounted for. The primary purpose of this study,
then, is to find and describe, and at a higher level, to explain the reasons as to why the two
languages use similar/ different thematic patterns. This study reveals that the different thematic
structures associated with different text types (genre) in English narrative and expository texts
are not, or, cannot be mapped on similar text types in Persian.
Key words: Thematic structure, Expository and Narrative texts, English and Persian
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Department of Linguistics and Foreign Languages, Payame Noor University, Mashhad, Iran.
1. Introduction
The first systematic approach to describing language was to the end of the twentieth century,
the descriptive-structural approach. In this approach, language and its constituents (adjective,
verb, etc.) were described and their relationship was analyzed in sentence and phrase
structures. It could be said that in a sense, within this approach the linguists’ approach was a
bottom-up one (Maleki, 2008). In other words, through the revealing samples of language and
recording them one could know their structures in relation to each other. After this era, to the
end of the twentieth century, the Chomskyan transformational-generative approach to language
developed. Within this approach, Chomsky (who formerly favored behaviorist theories about
language) tried to describe the human language system through the cognitive capabilities of
human and the role memory played in the process of language learning. Within this
framework, he emphasized the role of human nature (versus nurture). Within this framework,
language is viewed as a reflection of human’s nature and competence to encode and decode
verbal ideas in a symbolic way. In other words, from this new standpoint, language was
recognized a species-specific ability and originated from the human genetic mapping to enable
them receive and process meaningful input which stimulate this internal structure within the
human mind. Here, language is viewed as a phenomenon having roots in human mind, and
hence, in a top-down way. In other words, we can call this approach a process-oriented one, in
which the processes involved in language production and comprehension are highlighted.
Not long after this prevalent view, another rather new approach to language was introduced to
the academia which had its origins in the late nineteenth century’s Prague School of
Linguistics. This fruitful approach was proposed by Michael A. K. Halliday. Halliday did not
view language as the description of constituent structures and their relationships, nor did he
view it as a cognitive construct, but from a functional view (a social construct). Along these
lines, language was looked at as a means to transfer meaning and messages among language
users (Halliday, 1993). Here, the minimum unit for starting analysis is not a single constituent,
nor a phrase, but clauses within a discourse. Therefore, within the Hallidayan framework, the
clause and its major (not minimal) constituents as meaning-function units were of utmost
importance.
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2. Review of the Related Literature
The clause, in its representational function, construes a quantum of human experience: some
process — some change, or in the limiting case lack of change, in the external or our own
internal environment. Processes are construed as a configuration of components of three types:
(i) the process itself; (ii) the participants in that process; and (iii) any circumstantial factors,
such as time, manner or cause.
2.1 Metafunctions
The basic functions of language, in relation to our ecological and social environment are 1.
making sense of our experience, and 2. acting out our social relationships (Halliday &
Matthiessen, 2004). It is clear that language does — as we put it — construe human
experience. It names things, thus construing them into categories; and then, typically, goes
further and construes the categories into taxonomies, often using more names for doing so. So
we have houses and cottages and garages and sheds, which are all kinds of building; strolling
and stepping and marching and pacing, which are all kinds of walking; in, on, under, around as
relative locations and so on — and the fact that these differ from one language to another is a
reminder that the categories are in fact construed in language. More powerfully still, these
elements are configured into complex grammatical patterns like marched out of the house; the
figures can be built up into sequences related by time, cause and the like — there is no facet of
human experience which cannot be transformed into meaning. In other words, language
provides a theory of human experience, and certain of the resources of the lexicogrammar of
every language are dedicated to that function. We call it the ideational metafunction, and
distinguish it into two components, the experiential and the logical.
At the same time, whenever we use language, there is always something else going on. While
construing, language is always also enacting: enacting our personal and social relationships
with the other people around us. The clause of the grammar is not only a figure, representing
some process — some doing or happening, saying or sensing, being or having — with its
various participants and circumstances; it is also a proposition, or a proposal, whereby we
inform or question, give an order or make an offer, and express our appraisal of and attitude
towards whoever we are addressing and what we are talking about. This kind of meaning is
more active: if the ideational function of the grammar is ‘language as reflection’, this is
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‘language as action’. We call it the interpersonal metafunction, to suggest that it is both
interactive and personal.
This distinction between two modes of meaning is not just made from outside; when the
grammar is represented systemically, it shows up as two distinct networks of systems
(Halliday, 1969). What it signifies is that (1) every message is both about something and
addressing someone, and (2) these two motifs can be freely combined — by and large, they do
not constrain each other. But the grammar also shows up a third component, another mode of
meaning which relates to the construction of text. In a sense this can be regarded as an enabling
or facilitating function, since both the others — construing experience and enacting
interpersonal relations —depend on being able to build up sequences of discourse, organizing
the discursive flow and creating cohesion and continuity as it moves along. This too appears as
a clearly delineated motif within the grammar. We call it the textual metafunction.
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2.2 Textual, Interpersonal and Topical Themes
In our brief sketch of the metafunctions, we said that the clause, in its representational
function, construes a quantum of human experience: some process — some change, or in the
limiting case lack of change, in the external or our own internal environment. Processes are
construed as a configuration of components of three types: (i) the process itself; (ii) the
participants in that process; and (iii) any circumstantial factors, such as time, manner or cause.
The guiding principle of thematic structure is this: the Theme contains one, and only one, of
these experiential elements. This means that the Theme of a clause ends with the first
constituent that is either participant, circumstance or process. We refer to this constituent, in its
textual function, as the topical Theme.
There may, however, be other elements in the clause preceding the topical Theme. These are
elements which are either textual or interpersonal in function, playing no part in the
experiential meaning of the clause. They can be summarized as follows.
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Finite verbal operator: these are the small set of finite auxiliary verbs construing primary tense
or modality; they are unmarked Theme of yes/ no interrogatives.
The topical Theme need not be preceded by textual or interpersonal Themes as these are
optional elements. When clauses have a multiple Theme structure, containing a sequence of
Themes, the textual and interpersonal optional Themes occur before the obligatory topical
Theme:
The systematic pattern of Themes constructs a text’s method of development and these patterns
are predictable according to the text’s purposes. Evidently, in each case, different thematic
choices trigger certain decisions about the formation of the rest of the sentence. As a classroom
writing exercise, this task may help students to practice the purely mechanical manipulation of
propositions arising from thematic choices (Fries, 1983).
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There are some special cases of Theme analysis that are worth highlighting here. In existential
clauses the Theme is there. Moreover, whenever the dependant clause comes first, the whole
clause functions as Theme to the remainder of the sentence at a second level. In cleft sentences
the first ideational construction is considered a predicated Theme.
Generally, what is typically chosen as Theme in English depends on the choice of mood. Every
free clause selects for mood. Some, such as "John!" and "good night!" are minor clauses; they
have no thematic structure, and also will be left out of account. The others are major clauses. A
free major clause is either indicative or imperative in mood; if indicative, it is either declarative
or interrogative; if interrogative, it is either 'yes /no' interrogative or 'WH-' interrogative. The
following are some examples:
2.5 Moods of English sentences
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Here, each of these moods is considered from the point of view of their thematic structure
(Literary stylistics, 2008).
Subject: realizes the thing by reference to which the proposition can be affirmed or denied. It
provides the person or thing in whom is vested the success or failure of the proposition, what is
"held responsible".
I entered the class.
Finite: Halliday (1985a, in Eggins, 1994) defines the Finite in terms of its function in the
clause to make the proposition definite, to anchor the proposition in a way that we can argue
about it.
Did you enter the class?
Predicator: is the lexical or content part of the verbal group.
Did you enter the class?
Complement: is defined as a non-essential participant in the clause, a participant somehow
affected by the main argument of the proposition.
You I hold responsible for this.
Adjuncts: clause elements which contribute some additional information to the clause. They
can be identified as elements which do not have the potential to become Subject—that is, they
are not nominal elements, but are adverbial, or prepositional.
Well I’ll leave now.
2.6 Theme and Rheme
We may assume that in all languages the clause has the character of a message: it has some
form of organization whereby it fits in with, and contributes to, the flow of discourse. But there
are different ways in which this may be achieved. In English, as in many other languages, the
clause is organized as a message by having a distinct status assigned to one part of it.
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One part of the clause is enunciated as the Theme; this then combines with the remainder so
that the two parts together constitute a message.
In some languages, which have a pattern of a similar kind, the Theme is announced by means
of a particle: in Japanese, for example, there is a special postposition -wa, which signifies that
whatever immediately precedes it is thematic. In other languages, of which English is one, the
Theme is indicated by position in the clause. In speaking or writing English we signal that an
item has thematic status by putting it first. No other signal is necessary, although it is not
unusual in spoken English for the Theme to be marked off also by the intonation pattern.
Following the terminology of the Prague school of linguists, the term Theme is used as the
label for this function. The Theme is the element which serves as the point of departure of the
message; it is that which locates and orients the clause within its context. The remainder of the
message, the part in which the Theme is developed, is called in Prague school terminology the
Rheme.
The guiding principle of thematic structure is this: the Theme contains one, and only one, of
these experiential elements. This means that the Theme of a clause ends with the first
constituent that is either participant circumstance or process. We refer to this constituent, in its
textual function, as the topical Theme.
2.7 Why Theme and Rheme?
The terms that came to be used in the second half of the nineteenth century were
‘Psychological Subject’, ‘Grammatical Subject’ and ‘Logical Subject’.
I) Psychological Subject meant ‘that which is the concern of the message’. It was called
‘psychological’ because it was what the speaker had in his mind to start with, when embarking
on the production of the clause.
II) Grammatical Subject meant ‘that of which something is predicated’. It was called
‘grammatical’ because at the time the construction of Subject and Predicate was thought of as a
purely formal grammatical relationship; it was seen to determine various other grammatical
features, such as the case of the noun or pronoun that was functioning as Subject, and its
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concord of person and number with the verb, but it was not thought to express any particular
meaning.
III) Logical Subject meant ‘doer of the action’. It was called ‘logical’ in the sense this term had
had from the seventeenth century, that of ‘having to do with relations between things’, as
opposed to ‘grammatical’ relations, which were relations between symbols. In the first
example, all these three functions are conflated, or ‘mapped’ on to one another, as shown in
table 8:
However, as shown in the following table, the psychological Subject is this teapot. That is to
say, it is ‘this teapot’ that is the concern of the message, that the speaker has taken as the point
of embarkation of the clause. But the grammatical Subject is my aunt: ‘my aunt’ is the one of
whom the statement is predicated — in respect of whom the clause is claimed to be valid, and
therefore can be argued about as true or false. Only the logical Subject is still the duke: ‘the
duke’ is the doer of the deed — the one who is said to have carried out the process that the
clause represents.
As long as we concern ourselves only with idealized clause patterns, such as John runs or the
boy threw the ball, we can operate with the label Subject as if it referred to a single
undifferentiated concept. In clauses of this type, the functions of psychological, grammatical
and logical Subject all coincide. In the boy threw the ball, the boy would still be Subject no
matter which of the three definitions we were using.
But as soon as we take account of natural living language, and of the kinds of variation that
occur in it, in which the order of elements can vary, passives can occur as well as actives, and
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so on, it is no longer possible to base an analysis on the assumption that these three concepts
are merely different aspects of one and the same general notion. They have to be interpreted as
what they really are, i.e. three separate and distinct functions. There is no such thing as a
general concept of ‘Subject’ of which these are different varieties. In order to take account of
this, we replace these labels by other ones which relate more specifically to the functions
concerned:
Psychological Subject: Theme
Grammatical Subject: Subject
Logical Subject: Actor
2. 8 Thematic structure
The concept of Theme progression (Daneš as cited in Alonso, 1998) is part of the theory of
language known as Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP), propounded by scholars of the
Prague School. This theory "deals with how the semantic and syntactic structures of the
sentence function in fulfilling the communicative purpose intended for the sentence" (Firbas,
1998).
Different patterns of thematic progression correlate with different genres, that is, patterns of
thematic progression do not occur randomly but are sensitive to genre. Also, the experiential
content of Themes correlates with what is perceived to be the method of development of a text
or text segment (Iddings, 2008). Genre refers to a text type that has developed in response to a
social or professional need. It generally has a predictable structure (Dudley-Evans & John,
1998).
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Thematic structure, first studied by Daneš, tries to find the source of each Theme and thereby
gain a better understanding of the interaction of Themes and Rhemes. This in turn gives us a
way to elicit one of the structures used in building the text.
Constant Theme pattern (Theme re-iteration): the Theme of one clause is derived from or the
same as the Theme of the previous clause.
Linear Theme pattern (the zigzag pattern): the Theme of one clause derives from the Rheme of
the previous.
Derived Theme pattern: the Theme of one clause derives from a Hyper-Theme, which is not
explicitly found in the immediate context of the Theme in question.
2.9 Theme in declarative clauses
In a declarative clause, the typical pattern is one in which Theme is conflated with Subject; for
example, No one seemed to notice the writing on the wall, where no one is both Theme and
Subject. This is what Halliday refers to as "the mapping of Theme on to Subject", the
unmarked Theme of a declarative clause. This should be noted that for the use of a thematic
equative in clauses such as you're the one I blame for this, that's what they don't tell us, the
Theme is Subject, and therefore unmarked, whereas in the non-equative variants you I blame
for this, that they don't tell us [note that the that is demonstrative], you and that – not being
Subject-- are now marked Themes. The effect of this is to add a feature of contrastiveness. The
most common items functioning as Theme are the personal pronouns I, you... and the
impersonal pronouns it and there. Then come other nominal groups—those with a common
noun or proper noun as Head—and nominalizations. Providing these are functioning as
Subject, and then having them as Theme, they are still the unmarked Theme. The most usual
form of marked Theme is an adverbial group, for example, today, suddenly... or prepositional
phrase, for example, at night, without any warning... functioning as Adjunct in the clause.
Least likely to be thematic is a Complement, which is a nominal group that is not functioning
as Subject—something that could have been a Subject but is not, as in the example you I blame
for this, that they don't tell us.
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2.10 Theme in interrogative clauses
The basic meaning of a question is a request for an answer. The natural Theme of a question,
therefore, is what I want to know (Halliday, 2004).
There are two main types of question: one where what the speaker wants to know is the
Polarity 'yes/ no'? , e.g. Can you keep a secret? The other where what the speaker wants to
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know is the identity of some element in the content, e.g. Who will you take as your partner? In
both types, the word indicating what the speaker wants to know comes first.
In a yes/ no interrogative, which is a question about polarity, the element that functions as
Theme is the element that embodies the expression of polarity, namely the Finite verbal
operator. In a yes/ no interrogative, the Theme includes the finite operator; but since that is not
an element in the experiential structure of the clause, the Theme extends over the following
Subject as well.
In a WH- interrogative, which is a search for a missing piece of information, the element that
functions as Theme is the element that requests this information, namely the WH- element.
2.11 Theme in imperative clauses
The basic message of an imperative clause is either 'I want you to do something' or 'I want us
to do something'. The second type usually begin with let's. Here let's is the unmarked (typical)
choice of Theme. But with the first type, although the 'you' can be made explicit as a Theme
(e.g. you be quiet!) this is clearly a marked choice; the more typical form is simply keep quiet,
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with the verb in thematic position. The function of the verb is that of Predicator; here,
therefore, it is the Predicator that is the unmarked Theme. The imperative is the only type of
clause in which the predicator is regularly found as Theme. Imperative clauses may have a
marked Theme, as when a locative Adjunct is thematic. The Adjunct part of a phrasal verb may
serve as marked Theme in an imperative clause with an explicit Subject, as in Up you get!, Off
go!
Although this is the preferred analysis by some, Halliday (1985a: 49, in Eggins, 1994) suggests
that as the implicit Theme of imperative clause is the ellipsed Subject (you), imperatives may
also be analyzed as follows:
(you) Pass me the bowls Simon...
(Theme) Rheme
This is the preferred analysis of imperatives in this study. However, in either case, the Theme
selection of the clause would be unmarked.
Mood and Theme selection can be summarized as follows:
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2.12 Theme in existential processes
There is an exception to the rule that a topical Theme will always carry a Transitivity label.
This occurs in the case of existential processes. These involve the structure there is / there are.
Here, despite the fact that there does not receive a Transitivity label, it is described as topical
Theme:
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2.13 Moods in Persian
3. Research Method
We described the different verb/ sentence moods in English and Persian, and knew different
thematic patterns in English. Now it is time to do the same with Persian clauses and describe
their thematic structure, and then compare them with that of English sentences. To this
purpose, we will analyze different samples of narrative and expository text genres originally
written in English and Persian.
The research method used, therefore, will be the descriptive analytical method, in which we
first identify the different systems and operations at work, and then try to explain how they
work. The following is one such sample in English and Persian. The boundary between Theme
and Rheme is marked by number sign (#). Further, the following numerals are used to show
different thematic patterns:
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Jack and that he 1 # was downsizing to a smaller house because his wife 5 # recently passed
away. Jack 1 # told her the books belonged to his wife.
3.5 Sample Persian texts
Expository text:
Arabs in Iran
By Amir Hosein Khonji
عرب ها در ایران
آن بخش از ایران که از عهد ساسانی تا امروز خوزستان نامیده می شود
5 # در زمان هخامنشی، بنا بر سنگ نبشته ی داریوش بزرگ، "خَوجیا" نام
داشت و یک استان )به زبان پارسی باستان: خشتره پاو( بود. در زمان
پارتیان که دوران پادشاهی های کوچک محلی بود، 5 # خوزستان نیز شاه
خودمختار داشت، ولی ما نمی دانیم که 5 # از فرمانروایان بومی یا
از پهلوی ها بوده است. آخرین شاه محلی خوزستان 3 # نیروفر نام
داشت که در حدود سال 220 میالدی 5 # توسط اردشیر پاپکان از میان
برداشته شد. در زمان ساسانی 5 # خوزستان بصورت یک استان توسط
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فرماندارِ منصوب شاهنشاه اداره می شد. این وضع 3 # تا حمله ی عرب و
برافتادن شاهنشاهی برقرار بود. در سال 17 هجری که ابوموسا اشعری
خوزستان را گشود، 5 # یکی از بزرگان شهر مهرگان کدک به نام آذین
هرمزان فرماندار خوزستان بود. هرمزان 2 # همان مردی است که پس از
چندین شکست در نقاط مختلف خوزستان، سرانجام ناچار تسلیم ابوموسا
گردید، و او را 3 # به مدینه برده تحویل عمر دادند، و داستان درازی
دارد، که آخرش کشتن عمر 3 # به تحریک وی و ترور وی 3 # به دست
عبیدهللا پسر عمر است.
Narrative text:
Atousa, the Great Achaemenidian Lady
By Hasan Sheyda
آتوسا، مِهین بانوی هخامنشی
در بعد از ظهر یکی از روزهای بهار سال 527 پیش از میالد مسیح، 5 #
یک کشتی قبرسی آرام آرام به بندر "راکوتی" )اسکندریه( نزدیک شد و
در کنار کشتی های دیگر جای گرفت و لنگر انداخت.
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بندر راکوتی 2 # در آن زمان از شهرهای معروف و آباد مصر و دارای
تفریحگاه هایی برای ملوانان بود. وقتی کشتی قبرسی کامال ایستاد، 2 #
کارکنان بر حسب عادت به دو گروه تقسیم شدند، گروه کوچکی 2 # در
کشتی ماندند و عده ای 2 # برای تفریح و خوشگذرانی به شهر رفتند و
بیشتر آنها 2 # به باده نوشی و خوردن خوراک های لذیذ پرداختند.
وقتی شکم ها پر شده و باده پیمایی ها موثر افتاد، 3 # میان آنان و
عده-ای از مصریان نزاع شدیدی درگرفت و یکی از جاشوان قبرسی 3 # خود
را به کشتی رساند و دیگر دوستان را خبر کرد و با راهنمایی وی، 3 #
آنان نیز به میکده آمدند و کار زد و خورد 3 # باال گرفت و آن شب 5 #
دوازده تن از ملوانان قبرسی کشته و چند تن 2 # زخمی شدند.
وقتی حاکم راکوتی از ماجرا آگاه شد، از آنجا که قبرسی ها از اتباع
ایران بودند، 5 # دستور داد که آنها به کشتی خود بازگردند و شهر را
ترک کنند. قبرسی ها که چاره ای جز اطاعت نداشتند، 3 # بندر را ترک
کردند و به قبرس بازگشتند و به حاکم آنجا -که مطیع پادشاه ایران
بود- شکایت کردند. حاکم که نمی توانست مستقیما خود را با حکومت
فرعون درگیر کند، 2 # نامه ای به شاهنشاه ایران "کمبوجیه" نوشت و
چگونگی این درگیری را شرح دادو تصمیم گیری در این باره را به وی
واگذار کرد.
Page 32 of 32
ELT VOICES – INDIA
April 2014 | Volume 4, Issue 2
170|ELT Voices – India International Journal|ISSN 2230-9136 (Print) 2321-7170 (Online)
Sometimes, he 1 # would gather up all of his courage and 4 # quickly stamp up those seven
stairs, counting upwards from zero until he 1 # leapt onto the top landing where he 1 # yelled
in a panic stricken and tearful voice.