Page 1 of 3

Asian Culture

(1) Paintings

Bhutanese paintings can be classified into three categories:

those applied on statues. the wall·paintings and the scroll·

paintings called thank•. The clay statues are entirely painted

while the statues called "bronzes" are only painted on the

face to underline details like a moustache and the eyes.

The technique of the frescoe is unknown and the surface of

the inside walls of all the monasteries and temples is covered

with plaster of earth, smoothed ~nd let to dry before being --~~,,"JlI!'-'

painted. There is another technique which may be specific to

Bhutan and which is widely employed there. a very thin p"'I"e=""'~

of cloth is applied on the plaster with much care so that it is

almost impossible to detect the cloth unless it peels off the

wall; a special paste made of wheat flour and pepper powder

is used to prevent worms from eating the cloth.

Scroll-paintings, known as thanka, are extremely numerous in

Bhutan but they are not placed on permanent display·

temples and monasteries. They are kept rolled in hu

i; the storeroom of the temples and are taken out only for

special religious occasions. The technique of the thanka

consists of fixing a damp piece of cotton to a wooden frame~,"".,!,!:I·~41!'F.

A mixture of lime/chalk and gum is then rubbed on the

surface of the cloth and smoothed. A net of geometrical- .

is drawn to help the artist layout the composition. Someti

he simply presses the cloth against a xylographic block on

which the design is already engraved. He could also use me;.;

system of the pounce, or spray pattern, which consists .of

printed figure on paper with holes pricked at intervals th

which charcoal is pressed to produce a dotted pattern.:r

preliminary sketch disappears when the colours are appf

While numerous colours are generally used, some thank ..

have a totally golden background on which the design'is

ecuted in fine black or red lines. Other thankas execU1\Od'

special rituals are black with white and red designs. Wh

of the Nyingmapa and Drukpa Kagyupa sects, many paintings

depict the spiritual lineage of these two sects, as well as the

different religious and temporal Drukpa rulers of Bhutan

(Shabdrungs, Desis and Je Khempos).

Paints are traditionally made from earth, minerals and vege- tables, though in recent times chemical colours have been used.

The material is first reduced into powder and then mixed with

water, glue and chalk. The brushes are made from twigs and

animals' hair. The colours are applied in a particular order

associated with a symbolic meaning.

Paintings and sculptures are executed by monks or laymen

who work in special workshops. The disciples of a master do

all the preliminary work while the fine work is executed by

the master himself.

Page 31

Above - Painting of AvalokitBsvara f15th c.) in Tamshing.

Monastery in Bumthang , .

Below - A wall painting of Amirayus inside a chorren erectMI.

memory of King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck; Thimphu

Bhutanese Art

Bhutanese art (painting and sculpture, as discussed in this

article) has two main characteristics: it is religious and anony- mous. When the Bhutanese commission paintings and statues,

they consider this gesture as a pious act, gaining them merit.

The name of the donor is sometimes written on the work so

that his pious act may be remembered. The artist is often a

religious man who also gains merit doing this work; however,

the artist's name is almost never mentioned.

Since the iconographic rules in Bhutanese art are very strictly

fixed, the first responsibility of the Bhutanese artist is to

observe them scrupulously; thus he can only express his own

personality in minor details or scenes.

The subjects of Bhutanese art are: the Wheel of Life; the Four

Guardians; the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Chenrezigl in his

multiple forms; and 16 Arhats (Neten Chudrug); the 84

Mahasiddhas (Drubthob Gyechushil; the 1000 Buddhas;

Guru Rimpoche and his Eight Manifestations; Amitayus

(Tsepamey ; the highest deitiesof Tantric Cycles like Hevajra

(Kyedorjel, Cakrasamvara (Demchog) etc.; the protective

deities such as the different forms of Mahakala (Gompcl.

Palden Lhamo, Gyelpo Pehar; and various diagrams (mandalas,

kyilkhor). Some of the most beautiful and astonishing paint- ings are the cosmic mandalas which show the conception of

the World according to the Adhidharmakosha (an encyclo·

pedic treaty on Buddhist cosmology and philosophy composed

by an Indian scholar Vasubandhu in the 5th century A.D.) and

the Ka/acakra-tantra (Kalacakra literally means the "Wheel of

Time". This text of the 10th century A.D. exposes the basic

conception of cosmology and astrology of Tantric BUddhisml.

We find them in Para Dzong, Punakha Dzong. Simtokha

Dzong and Gantey Gompa. As Bhutan has been the stronghold

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

by Franl;:oise POMMARET-IMAEDA

3,0 _SuqJmer/Autumn 1983 No. 35

F~'" POMMARET·IMAEOA (lashi Wangmo)

Born in 1954 ;n France. Diploma in Tibetan language from I'lnstitut

National des Langues et Civilisation Orientales, Paris. M.A. in History

of Art and Archaeology from Paris I (Pantheon-Somonne). Currently

completing a Ph.D. in Anthropology and workIng as Research

Assistant in the Department of Tourism of the Government of

Bhutan.

AUSPICIOUS SYMBOLS AND .~

LUMINOUS COLOURS~!I

Bhutan is still today a very little-known kingdom secluded in

the Eastern Himalayas between India and Tibet (China). Itwas

a country ignored for centuries whose strict policy of isolation

ended only in the 1970s.

Bhutan with a land area of 47,000 km' , has a population ·of

Mongoloid stock. The majority of the population practise

Tantric Buddhism which was introduced as early as the 8th

century A.D. by Guru Rimpoche. For centuries, monks and

refugees from neighbouring Tibet have settled in the hospit- able and fertile valleys of Bhutan, and have ensured close

cultural links between the two countries. Because of different

ecological and socio·economic conditions, Bhutan quickly

developed a culture of its own. The art and architecture of

Bhutan are beautiful examples of this cultural association with

Tibet which has evolved into original patterns and forms,

showing the true Bhutanese genius.

Page 2 of 3

32 Summer/Autumn 1983 No. 35

thanka is finished, it is surrounded with a silk and brocade

border of many colours which also have symbolic meaning,

and two staves are stitched to the upper and lower borders for

suspension and stretch ing.

Two other tedmiques not involving painting are used to make

thankas: embroidery and applique. Applique is specially done

in the case of the huge thankas which are hung on festival days

on the outside walls of the temples.

The style of the paintings has changed much along the centu·

ries, but it is very difficult to make a precise history of Bhuta- nese paintings because paintings of temples which are un- doubtedly old, have been repainted many times along the cen·

turies. In the earliest temples which have kept their original

paintings' like Tamshing in Bumthang (15th century A.D.I, the

central figure, soberly drawn, occupies most of the painting

while the edges are divided into small compartments for the

minor figures. The imposing proportion of the main figure, the

clothes of the attendants showing the legs, and the pattern of

A manip (one who chants prayer) opening the Tashigomllng, chanting

prayers. This scene is often seen st Sunday markets or Tshechu fflstivaJs.

Asian Culture.

,I

,

the jewels indicate an Indian influence of the Pala·Sena BengaJr

dl(nasties (8th·12th century A.D.). This style has highly iRflI....==-!1'"

enced, possibly through Nepal, early Tibetan and Central

Asian art. Although in the 15th century Chinese art had

already exerted a certain influence on Tibetan paintings, it "

does not appear to have reached Bhutan. However many early...-.:r~

paintings had been repainted much later as a meritorious ac~

and some examples of this influence may have disappeared.

Bhutanese painting always favoured, even after the 15th

century, a central composition with adjacent figures like in

Taktshang (17th century), Tango (17th century) and Phajo:

ding (18th century) monasteries. Other artists used the entite

space of the walls or of the cloth and produced asymmetr~

compositions. In this case, many figures or scene~ OCCUpy:

whole space and the interest is not focused on one main .

The artist can also freely, around a central figure, illustr~

scenes of a famous person's life; an example is the illustr

of Milarepa's life in Para Dzong. Throughout the centu .

Bulletin of the Asian Cultural Centre for Unesco

Bhutanese style has become more and more ornate, the use of

gold paint more lavish and landscape paintings treated after

the Chinese manner. Chinese art influences, mixed with earlier

impact into a harmonious Bhutanese blend, can be seen from

the 17th century onwards. Many of the paintings are inscribed

with the names of the figures represented which help to date

the paintings.

(2) Sculptures

To our knowledge, in Bhutan there are no sculptures made of

stone and almost no stone carvings, except some low reliefs

on the mani-walls and on a few rocks. As Bhutan is very rich in

slate, a number 01 large pieces of slate are intricately engraved

with deities, monks and saints of Tantric Buddhism. The most

beautiful are found around the central tower of the Simtokha

Dzong and, as they are all inscribed, are a priceless treasure for

the iconography of Bhutanese art.

Clay images are very common and are entirely painted. Their

size can vary greatly from the very small images which are

placed in the portable chapels called Tashigomang, to the huge

statues of two or three meters high, as in Kuje and Phajoding

Monasteries. Fine and even clay is either moulded on a core

of wood wrapped in cloth or moulded directly without any

support, the statue then remaining hollow. Some small addi- tions may then be moulded before being added to the main

body. Miniature chortens made of clay and sometimes mixed

with the ashes of the dead are called rsha·rsha and are very

common in holy places; they are moulded before being paint·

ed or whitewashed.

Metal images are called by the conventional term of "bronzes"

but are usually made from other copper alloys. Silver and gold

statues, although rare, do exist. The lost wax casting, or eire

perdue technique which was introduced in Tibet and Bhutan

by the Newari craftsmen, is widely used for the medium-size

images. The tall images and the large commemorative stupas,

however, are first hammered from sheets of various sizes then

embossed and engraved, the separate parts being jointed by

riveting. Most of the metal images and chortens are gilded, and

some of them are even ornamented with corals and turquoises.

The face and the jewels of the statues are frequently inlaid

with silver and copper, and paints applied to the faces and the

head-dresses. From the 18th century, altars and chortens were

frequently ornamented with sheets of beautifully embossed

and chiseled gilded copper, primarily in western Bhutan

(Phajoding, Gantey and Thadra Gompal. Some images are

'made 01 lacquered wood and have a striking expression such

as the Milarepa's statue in Dungtse Lhakhang.

Religious book covers are also made of wood, and when the

books are quite precious, the upper covers are finely carved

Summer/Autumn 198;3 No. 35 ~~

with deities and often painted or covered with sheets of the

embossed copper.

It is very difficult to·speak about different styles of Bhutanese

sculpture because no study has yet been made of them. A

Newari influence is evident in large hammered statues and in

the copper halo which is located at the back of many im.

portant statues, like in Simtokha Dzong, and which is com- posed of garudas; nagas, makaras after the typical Newari

torana (gate).

Other statues which may date back to the 16th century have

very simple but striking features. Their bases are not carved

and no real influence can be discerned from them, the statue

of 4th Sha·mar Chhoekyi Gragpa (1453-1524) at Thangbi

Lhakhang in Bumthang is a good example. From the 18th

century onwards, statues were much more ornate, very often

inlaid with semi-precious stones and their base carved in a

double rank of petals of the lotus flower.

Paintings and statues are consecrated and a religious ceremony

destined to give li1e to the painting or the statue is performed:

a holy lama may even apply his handprints at the back of the

scroll, while inside the statue will be placed a piece of wood

and papers inscribed with sacred formulas.

Bhutanese Architecture

The architectural forms in Bhutan are very diverse: chortens

(stu pas) ; mani-walls, temples; monasteries; fortresses; palaces;

and village houses compose a landscape which is unique to

Bhutan.

Chortens are erected in memory of an eminent lama or to

protect against evil spirits at dangerous places, like cross- roads and passes. They are of three styles: 1) Huge stone,

often whitewashed chortens built after the stupa of Bodhnath

in Nepal: good examples are the Chendebji Chorten and

Chorten Kora. 2) Small stone chonens which show an affinity

with the Tibetan style, common throughout central and

eastern Bhutan, and are often protected by a wooden super- structure. 3) Chortens which show a purely Bhutanese tradi.

tion and are widespread mostly in western Bhutan: The outer

structure is a square stone tower with a red stripe at the upper

level and shingle roof; sometimes inside a memorial chonen

after the Tibetan style is erected. This kind of chorten may be

an elaborate form derived from the chonen with wooden

superstructure.

Some of the chortens are linked together by man; (prayer).

walls. These are stone walls which support a multitude of

stones carved with the sacred formulas, either of the three

protective Bodhisattvas: Chenrezig; Jampelyang; Chana Dorje;

or simply with the Chenrezig's formula "Om mani padme

hum", from which the name of mani-walls is derived. However

Page 3 of 3

•

rolled in a corner during the day; shelves for the crockery;

carpets; trunks for valuable possessions; an altar; and one or

two looms. A courtyard, often covered, is found on one side

of the house. Nowadays this type of farm·house is still found

throughout the country with slight regional differences.

However, they are now almost all whitewashed and in the

towns, because the house is no more a farm, windows are

located at the first floor as well. The ground-floor has become

servant's quarters, storeroom and kitchen, and there is a

tendency to build the kitchen and the bathroom in a separate

little building detached from the back of the house. The

ground-floor can also be used for a shop.

This short paper cannot give detailed insight into the origi- nality, beauty and v.ariety of Bhutanese art and architecture.

It is hoped, however, that this introduction will lead to a

greater appreciation of the unique art and architecture of

Bhutan.

Summer/Autumn 1983 No. 35 35 Bulletin of the Asian Cultural Centre for Unesco

l Left - A newly-built house with a religious ornamen t

. R/~ht above - Gantey Palace with a chorten in front; ParD VaJJey

Right below - A house under construction,' ParD valley

from inside by wooden shutters but noyv glass is common in

the bigger villages. Although, in olden times, the framework

was rarely painted, it is today more and more ornamented by

coloured motifs. The roof, as is discussed above, is pitched on

trusses and the open space between the flat top of the.upper

floor and the wooden shingles is used for stacking firewood

and fodder. Traditionally in the farm-houses..which were

seldom whitewashed. the ground-floor was reserved for the

cattle. The other floors were reached by a ladder cut out from

a tree trunk, and the walls of these floors were almost window.

less. Tt)e intermediate floor, if there was one, was used to store

grains, seeds and other foodstuff. The upper floor, the living

quarters, was divided into small rooms which had no real

d~finite function except for the bathroom, jf existing, the

kitchen full of smoke and soot due to the absence of a chim- ney. and the prayer·room which also served as the guest-room.

. The furniture is sparse: low tables; sleeping-mats whichl are

ing and a cluster of small houses around it.

The Bhutanese fortress built for strategic purposes since the

beg'inning of the 17th century is called a dzong. It can be

defined as a state-monastery and a district administration

housed together in a dramatically located fortress. The solidity

of the sloping white walls combines with the elegance, the

richness of the woodwork and the aerial feature of the pitched

roof and make the dzong one of the most impress~ve forms of

architecture in Asia. The basic pattern of a dzong is a main

tower (utse) and a courtyard surroupded by walls which

houses monks' Quarters, kitche~s and administrative offices:

Gasa Dzong and Simtokha Dzong can be given as examples.

However, very few dzongs strictly follow this pattern and most

~of them have two courtyards delineated by the central tower:

one courtyard delineates the monastery and one the administ- rative section, like in Punakha, Wangdiphodrang and Thimphu

Dzongs. The courtyard and the buildings may also be located

on different levels and follow the slope of the hill: Paro, Jakar

and Ton9sa Dzongs follow this pattern. Tongsa is the most

complex dzang with an intricate pattern of buildings, towers

and courtyards.

Many architectural features of the temples. monasteries and

dzongs are also to be found in the purely civil architecture but

with interpretations due to different functions,

The appearance of palaces seem to have coincided with the

advent of the monarchy at the beginning of the 20th century,

and are mainly found in Bumthang·Tongsa area. Their basic

pattern is very similar to the dzong: a main building where, the

masters reside surrounded by outer walls in which the servants'

Quarters are established. However, because they serve a dif- ferent purpose, these palaces have a much less severe architec- ture than the dzongs. They are profusely decorated with

woodwork and even the outer walls are pierced by numerous

be~utifully carved and gaily painted windows. One upper room

of the main building is always devoted to religion. This room,

called chhoesham is a real temple with wall·paintings, altar,

statues and books for the rituals. Amongst other palaces, Lame

Gompa, Wangduchhoeling and Ugyenchhoeling in Bumthang,

Kunga Rablen south of Tongsa Dzong and Gantey Palace in

Paro vallery are good examples.

Village houses are not built with the same material all over

Bhutan: in western Bhutan the walls are made of rammed

earth while in central and eastern Bhutan, mainly stone is

used. In eastern Bhutan, bamboo mats are also used to build

and to cover small houses which rest on poles. However, al\

over the country Bhutanese houses display distrinctive fea·

tures: they have a rectangular shape, two or three storeys

the upper floors are almost totally made of a framework of

wood and plastered bamboo lattices; the windows are closed

34 Summer/Autumn 1983 No. 35 Asian Culture ~~------------------------------------_.:..--...:-=--=-..:

mani-walls may also stand by themselves, without chortens.

Bhutanese architecture is a remarkable adaptation of Tibetan

architecture to different climatic and ecological conditions.

For instance, in Tibet the walls are sloped and often white- washed, the windows get larger with increasing storeys, but

in Bhutan the abundance of rain and of timber has given

Bhutanese architecture its specific feature. Wood is used plen- tifully, and the doors and the windows show a supreme

craftsmanship. The windows have distinctive trefoil-shaped

tops and elaborate lintels which are painted with geometrical

and floral motifs. The pitched roof, covered with shingles

weighed down with rows of stones is a very striking and

original structure. Its origin was probably the Tibetan flat

. roof on top of which Bhutanese have put slotted trusses, The

use of nails was in olden times unknown but has now become

more common. Temples. monasteries, fortresses and houses

have been, and are still very frequently destroyed by fire but

they are"generally rebuilt after the same modeL

Temples (/hakhang) are usually one or two storeys. simple

buildings with wide red stripe at the upper level of the walls

and a gilded roof ornament. They may have a small courtyard.

Inside the temple the walls are covered with paintings and the

space is generally divided by pillars into an anti chamber and a

shrine. These buildings seem to be one of the earliest forms of

religious architecture and have crossed the centuries. remaining

intact to this day.

We can cite Kichu Lhakhang in Paro. Jampa and Sugney

Lhakhang in Bumthang, all said to have been built around the

7th century, Chime Lhakhang from the 16th century in

Punakha valley and Gom Kora in eastern Bhutan. Temples are

kept by a caretaker who belongs to the owner's family or who

is delegated by the State, because temples and monasteries are

the properties of the state or of a family.

Bhutanese monasteries {gompal are of two architectural types:

the "cluster" type and the "dzong" type. The "cluster" type is

probably the most ancient type; it consists of a core 'of one or

two temples, around which small houses of habitation and

meditation are built for the monks. Some examples of the

"cluster" type are Dzongdrakha in Paro valley, Phajoding and

Tashingang in Thimphu valley. Kunzangdra and Tharpaling in

Bumthang valley. The "dzong" type is a monastery built like

a fortress with a main- tower housing many temples and a

surrounding outer wall which serves as accommodation

quarters for the monks. The most impressive examples of the

architecture are Gantey Gompa near Pele..la Pass, Tango in

upper Thimphu and Talo near Punakha, all dated late 17th

century. Cheri Gompa, built in 1620 by the Shabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal in the upper Thimphu valley, presents the

characteristics of the two styles with a dzong-like main build-